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Location: continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle
Geographic coordinates: 90 00 S, 0 00 E
Map references: Antarctic Region
Area:
total: 14 million sq km
land: 14 million sq km (280,000 sq km ice-free, 13.72 million
sq km ice-covered) (est.)
note: second-smallest continent (after Australia)
Area—comparative: slightly less than 1.5 times the
size of the US
Land boundaries: 0 km
note: see entry on International disputes
Coastline: 17,968 km
Maritime claims: none, but see entry on International
disputes
Climate: severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation,
and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West
Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula
has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January
along the coast and average slightly below freezing
Terrain: about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2%
barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters;
mountain ranges up to about 5,000 meters; ice-free coastal areas
include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic
Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers
form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating
ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Vinson Massif 5,140 m
Natural resources: none presently exploited; iron ore,
chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and
coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small, uncommercial quantities
Land use:
arable land: 0%
permanent crops: 0%
permanent pastures: 0%
forests and woodland: 0%
other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)
Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
Natural hazards: katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow
coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the
foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move
clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated
areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak
Environment—current issues: in 1998, NASA satellite
data showed that the antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record,
covering 27 million square kilometers; researchers in 1997 found
that increased ultraviolet light coming through the hole damages
the DNA of icefish, an antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone
depletion earlier was shown to harm one-celled antarctic marine
plants
Environment—international agreements:
party to: none of the selected agreements
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography—note: the coldest, windiest, highest, and
driest continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches the
surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in an
equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable
Population: no indigenous inhabitants, but there are seasonally
staffed research stations
note: approximately 29 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic
Treaty, send personnel to perform seasonal (summer) and year-round
research on the continent and in its surrounding oceans; the population
of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its
nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered
by the Antarctic Treaty) varies from approximately 4,000 in summer
to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel including
ship's crew and scientists doing onboard research are present in
the waters of the treaty region; Summer (January) population—3,687
total; Argentina 302, Australia 201, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Bulgaria
16, Chile 352, China 70, Finland 11, France 100, Germany 51, India
60, Italy 106, Japan 136, South Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 60,
Norway 40, Peru 28, Poland 70, Russia 254, South Africa 80, Spain
43, Sweden 20, UK 192, US 1,378 (1998-99); Winter (July) population—964
total; Argentina 165, Australia 75, Brazil 12, Chile 129, China
33, France 33, Germany 9, India 25, Japan 40, South Korea 14, NZ
10, Poland 20, Russia 102, South Africa 10, UK 39, US 248 (1998-99);
year-round stations—42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 4, Brazil
1, Chile 4, China 2, Finland 1, France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Italy
1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 6, South
Africa 1, Spain 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1 (1998-99); Summer-only
stations—32 total; Argentina 3, Australia 4, Bulgaria 1, Chile
7, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 3, NZ 1, Peru 1, Russia 3, Sweden 2,
UK 5 (1998-99) in addition, during the austral summer some nations
have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long
temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research
Country name:
conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Antarctica
Data code: AY
Government type: Antarctic Treaty Summary—the Antarctic
Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June
1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica.
Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings—the
22nd Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in Norway in May
1998. At the end of 1998, there were 43 treaty member nations: 27
consultative and 16 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include
the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national
territory (some claims overlap) and 20 nonclaimant nations. The
US and some other nations that have made no claims have reserved
the right to do so. The US does not recognize the claims of others.
The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted
to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the
country was an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations
are—Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway,
and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are—Belgium, Brazil
(1983), Bulgaria (1978) China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989),
Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989),
Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), Russia, South Africa,
Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), and the US. Acceding
(nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses, are—Austria
(1987), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic
(1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary
(1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971),
Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1995), and Ukraine
(1992). Article 1—area to be used for peaceful purposes only;
military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military
personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any
other peaceful purpose; Article 2—freedom of scientific investigation
and cooperation shall continue; Article 3—free exchange of
information and personnel in cooperation with the UN and other international
agencies; Article 4—does not recognize, dispute, or establish
territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the
treaty is in force; Article 5 —prohibits nuclear explosions
or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6—includes under
the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes
south; Article 7—treaty-state observers have free access, including
aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations,
and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction
of military personnel must be given; Article 8—allows for jurisdiction
over observers and scientists by their own states; Article 9—frequent
consultative meetings take place among member nations; Article 10—treaty
states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that
are contrary to the treaty; Article 11—disputes to be settled
peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ;
Articles 12, 13, 14—deal with upholding, interpreting, and
amending the treaty among involved nations. Other agreements—some
200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and
ratified by governments include —Agreed Measures for the Conservation
of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964); Convention for the Conservation
of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic
Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources agreement was
signed in 1988 but was subsequently rejected; the Protocol on Environmental
Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and
entered into force 14 January 1998; this agreement provides for
the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific
annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact
assessments, waste management, and protected areas; it prohibits
all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research.
Legal system: US law, including certain criminal offenses
by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not
under jurisdiction of other countries. Some US laws directly apply
to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C.
section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for
the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute:
the taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous
plants and animals; entry into specially protected or scientific
areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation
into the US of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic
Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and
one year in prison. The Departments of Treasury, Commerce, Transportation,
and Interior share enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95-541,
the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions
from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans
and Polar Affairs, Room 5801, Department of State, Washington, DC
20520, which reports such plans to other nations as required by
the Antarctic Treaty. For more information, contact Permit Office,
Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington,
Virginia 22230 (703) 306-1031, or see their website at www.nsf.gov.
Economy—overview: No economic activity is conducted
at present, except for fishing off the coast and small-scale tourism,
both based abroad. Antarctic fisheries in 1997-98 reported landing
92,456 metric tons. Unregulated fishing landed five to six times
more than the regulated fishery, and allegedly illegal fishing in
antarctic waters in 1998 resulted in the seizure (by France and
Australia) of at least eight fishing ships. A total of 9,604 tourists
visited in the 1997-98 summer, up from the 7,413 who visited the
previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers on 13 commercial
(nongovernmental) ships that made 92 trips during the summer. Around
200 tourists were on yachts or commercial aircraft. Most tourist
trips lasted approximately two weeks.
Telephones: NA
Telephone system:
domestic: NA
international: NA
Radio broadcast stations: AM NA, FM 2 (American Forces
Antarctic Network), shortwave 1 (Argentina Antarctic Base de Egercito
Esperanza) (1998)
Radios: NA
Television broadcast stations: 1 (American Forces Antarctic
Network-McMurdo) (1997)
Televisions: NA
Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage
Airports: 17; 27 stations, operated by 16 national governments
party to the Antarctic Treaty, have landing facilities for either
helicopters and/or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial enterprises operate
two additional air facilities; helicopter pads are available at
27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice, blue-ice,
or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft;
of these, 1 is greater than 3 km in length, 6 are between 2 km and
3 km in length, 3 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 3 are less
than 1 km in length, and 2 are of unknown length; snow surface skiways,
limited to use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available
at another 15 locations; of these, 4 are greater than 3 km in length,
3 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 2 are between 1 km and 2
km in length, 2 are less than 1 km in length, and 4 are of unknown
length; airports generally subject to severe restrictions and limitations
resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; airports
do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the respective
governmental or nongovernmental operating organization required
for landing (1998 est.)
Airports—with unpaved runways:
total: 17
over 3,047 m: 3
2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
914 to 1,523 m: 4
under 914 m: 5 (1998 est.)
Heliports: 1 (1998 est.)
Military—note: the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any
measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military
bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers,
or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use of military
personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other
peaceful purposes
Disputes—international: Antarctic Treaty defers claims
(see Antarctic Treaty Summary above); sections (some overlapping)
claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France (Adelie Land), New
Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen Maud Land), and UK; the
US and most other nations do not recognize the territorial claims
of other nations and have made no claims themselves (the US reserves
the right to do so); no formal claims have been made in the sector
between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west
Source: 1999 CIA World Factbook
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